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This lead crisis happened in Washington, D.C., United States (Edwards, Triantafyllidou, & Best, 2009, p. 1618). It started in November 2000 and lasted until June 2004 (Brown, Raymond, Homa, Kennedy, & Sinks, 2011, p. 68). The lead crisis is noted as having ended in 2004, but the effects have lasted over the years (Brown et al., 2011, p. 68).
To add a new question go to app settings and press "Manage Questions" button.This lead crisis happened in Washington, D.C., United States (Edwards, Triantafyllidou, & Best, 2009, p. 1618). It started in November 2000 and lasted until June 2004 (Brown, Raymond, Homa, Kennedy, & Sinks, 2011, p. 68). The lead crisis is noted as having ended in 2004, but the effects have lasted over the years (Brown et al., 2011, p. 68).
Washington D.C. was founded July 16, 1790 (Fogle, 2018). In the 1900’s the city grew socially, economically, and culturally (Fogle, 2018). D.C. also began to receive attention from the rest of the world at this time (Fogle, 2018).
The lead in water crisis is 20-30 times worse in D.C. than the Flint, Michigan water crisis (Shaver & Hedgpeth, 2016). This is because D.C.’s water crisis has effected more people and has lasted longer (Shaver & Hedgpeth).
Lead is a solid, toxic, metal (Jakubowski, 2011, p. 1). In water lead is not able to be seen or tasted. Lead has been used for many man-made projects including paint, gasoline, and non-ferrous metals (Jakubowski, 2011, p. 1).
Washington D.C. was founded July 16, 1790 (Fogle, 2018). In the 1900’s the city grew socially, economically, and culturally (Fogle, 2018). D.C. also began to receive attention from the rest of the world at this time (Fogle, 2018).
Lead is leaked into the environment naturally and through man-made resources (Jakubowski, 2011, p. 1).
The health of children and adults are both negatively affected because of lead exposure (Jakubowski, 2011, p. 1). Poor health effects in adults include an increase in blood pressure, decreased function of the central nervous system, poor pregnancy outcomes, etc. (Brown et al., 2011, p. 67). Negative health effects in children include developmental delays (brain), and behavioral disorders (Brown et al., 2011, p. 1). In more extreme cases, seizures and death may occur (Brown et al., 2011, p. 1). The negative health effects caused by lead exposure are well known (Brown et al., 2011, p. 67).
The lead in water crisis is 20-30 times worse in D.C. than the Flint, Michigan water crisis (Shaver & Hedgpeth, 2016). This is because D.C.’s water crisis has effected more people and has lasted longer (Shaver & Hedgpeth).
Lead is a solid, toxic, metal (Jakubowski, 2011, p. 1). In water lead is not able to be seen or tasted. Lead has been used for many man-made projects including paint, gasoline, and non-ferrous metals (Jakubowski, 2011, p. 1).
There is no safe level of lead exposure (Jakubowski, 2011, p. 6).The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) will not establish a level of concern lower than 100 micrograms per liter (Jakubowski, 2011, p. 6). If they did, this could provide a false sense of safety for children who have blood lead levels below the limit of 100 micrograms per liter (Jakubowski, 2011, p. 6).
By the late 1800s, it was known that lead pipes can be bad for people’s health (Rabin, 2008, p. 1548). Despite this knowledge, it was not until the 1920’s that their use began to be restricted (Rabin, 2008, p. 1584).
Lead is leaked into the environment naturally and through man-made resources (Jakubowski, 2011, p. 1).
The Lead Industries Association (LIA) campaigned for the use of lead pipes (Rabin, 2008, p. 1584). The LIA only made known the benefits of using lead piping (Rabin, 2008, p. 1594). They did not mention the negative health outcomes that could result (Rabin, 2008, p. 1594).
The health of children and adults are both negatively affected because of lead exposure (Jakubowski, 2011, p. 1). Poor health effects in adults include an increase in blood pressure, decreased function of the central nervous system, poor pregnancy outcomes, etc. (Brown et al., 2011, p. 67). Negative health effects in children include developmental delays (brain), and behavioral disorders (Brown et al., 2011, p. 1). In more extreme cases, seizures and death may occur (Brown et al., 2011, p. 1). The negative health effects caused by lead exposure are well known (Brown et al., 2011, p. 67).
There is no safe level of lead exposure (Jakubowski, 2011, p. 6).The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) will not establish a level of concern lower than 100 micrograms per liter (Jakubowski, 2011, p. 6). If they did, this could provide a false sense of safety for children who have blood lead levels below the limit of 100
Lead exposure impacted everyone in Washington, D. C. (Brown et al., 2011, p. 67). This disaster was especially a problem for children in households with low incomes and for African American children (Brown et al., 2011, p. 67). More than half of homes in Washington, D.C. with plumbing made from lead exceeded the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA’s) action level of 15 parts per billion (Rabin, 2008, p. 1584).
By the late 1800s, it was known that lead pipes can be bad for people’s health (Rabin, 2008, p. 1548). Despite this knowledge, it was not until the 1920’s that their use began to be restricted (Rabin, 2008, p. 1584).
The mechanism of exposure was the water supply (Brown et al., 2011, p. 67). Washington, D.C. changed their water treatment from chlorine to chloramine (Brown, et al., 2011, pg. 68). This made it possible for lead to seep from the plumbing lines into the water supply (Brown et al., 2011, p. 68).
The Lead Industries Association (LIA) campaigned for the use of lead pipes (Rabin, 2008, p. 1584). The LIA only made known the benefits of using lead piping (Rabin, 2008, p. 1594). They did not mention the negative health outcomes that could result (Rabin, 2008, p. 1594).
The initial exposure lasted about four years (Brown et al., 2011, p. 68). The switch from chlorine to chloramine took place in 2000 (Brown et al., 2011, p. 68). Until 2004, nothing had been done about lead leaking into the drinking water (Brown et al., 2011, p. 68).
Lead exposure impacted everyone in Washington, D. C. (Brown et al., 2011, p. 67). This disaster was especially a problem for children in households with low incomes and for African American children (Brown et al., 2011, p. 67). More than half of homes in Washington, D.C. with plumbing made from lead exceeded the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA’s) action level of 15 parts per billion (Rabin, 2008, p. 1584).
There were 10,086 lead pipes that had high exposure to lead in their water (Edwards et al., 2009, p. 1620). There were 14,743 pipes considered moderate risk (Edwards et al., 2009, p. 1620). There were 1,318 pipes that were considered low risk (Edwards et al., 2009, p. 1620). This means 22% of the total population in D.C. were exposed to high risk lead levels in their water, 55% to moderate, and 23% to low (Edwards et al., 2009, p. 1620). As a result of lead exposure, 2,000 children were not born from 2001 to 2004 due to miscarriages (Andrei, 2016). Also, there were 200 deaths from 2001 to 2004 that were believed to be associated with lead contamination (Andrei, 2016).
It took until 2004 for a response to the event to occur (Brown et al., 2011, p. 68).
The mechanism of exposure was the water supply (Brown et al., 2011, p. 67). Washington, D.C. changed their water treatment from chlorine to chloramine (Brown, et al., 2011, pg. 68). This made it possible for lead to seep from the plumbing lines into the water supply (Brown et al., 2011, p. 68).
The initial exposure lasted about four years (Brown et al., 2011, p. 68). The switch from chlorine to chloramine took place in 2000 (Brown et al., 2011, p. 68). Until 2004, nothing had been done about lead leaking into the drinking water (Brown et al., 2011, p. 68).
The CDC issued a false report in 2004 that said no one became ill due to the lead in Washington, D.C.’s drinking water (Lyons, 2016). The Water and Sewer Authority (WASA) was responsible for replacing the water lines that ran from the street to the water meter (Brown et al., 2011, p. 68). WASA was not responsible for replacing water lines in the homes of D.C. residents (Brown et al., 2011, p. 68).
A Washington Post article was published in January of 2004 that exposed the situation in D.C. (Edwards et al., 2009, p. 1619). After the article was released, the public was instructed to flush their water before cooking, and lead filters were sent to homes with high lead levels in their water (Edwards et al., 2009, p. 1619). According to Marc Edwards, a civil engineer and an expert serving in the lawsuits against D.C., people can limit their lead exposure for as little as $20 by purchasing a lead filter that goes on a kitchen sink (Augenstein, 2016).
There were 10,086 lead pipes that had high exposure to lead in their water (Edwards et al., 2009, p. 1620). There were 14,743 pipes considered moderate risk (Edwards et al., 2009, p. 1620). There were 1,318 pipes that were considered low risk (Edwards et al., 2009, p. 1620). This means 22% of the total population in D.C. were exposed to high risk lead levels in their water, 55% to moderate, and 23% to low (Edwards et al., 2009, p. 1620). As a result of lead exposure, 2,000 children were not born from 2001 to 2004 due to miscarriages (Andrei, 2016). Also, there were 200 deaths from 2001 to 2004 that were believed to be associated with lead contamination (Andrei, 2016).
The Safe Drinking Water Amendments of 1986 required all homes built after 1986 to have “lead-free” plumbing (Brown et al., 2011, p. 68). This regulation still allowed for plumbing to have 8% lead (Brown et al., 2011, p. 68). The Lead and Copper Rule was established in 1991, and is enforced by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (Brown et al., 2011, p. 67). Since 1991, this law has been revised many times (EPA, 2017). This regulation requires the monitoring of tap water (EPA, 2017). If the amount of lead in water is more than 15 parts per billion, or copper levels are more than 1.3 parts per million in more than 10% of tap water samples, the system has to take action to combat and control the corrosion (EPA, 2017). If this is the case, the system also has to inform the public of ways they can remain healthy, and may have to replace service lines under their control (EPA, 2017).
It took until 2004 for a response to the event to occur (Brown et al., 2011, p. 68).
In 2004, D.C. added orthophosphate to the chloramine to combat the corrosion of pipes, and began replacing service lines made of lead (Brown et al., 2011, p. 68). In 2011 Congress reduced the maximum lead content in water from 8% to 0.25% (EPA, 2017). This was made possible by the Reduction in Lead Drinking Water Act (RLDWA) (EPA, 2017).
The CDC issued a false report in 2004 that said no one became ill due to the lead in Washington, D.C.’s drinking water (Lyons, 2016). The Water and Sewer Authority (WASA) was responsible for replacing the water lines that ran from the street to the water meter (Brown et al., 2011, p. 68). WASA was not responsible for replacing water lines in the homes of D.C. residents (Brown et al., 2011, p. 68).
A Washington Post article was published in January of 2004 that exposed the situation in D.C. (Edwards et al., 2009, p. 1619). After the article was released, the public was instructed to flush their water before cooking, and lead filters were sent to homes with high lead levels in their water (Edwards et al., 2009, p. 1619). According to Marc Edwards, a civil engineer and an expert serving in the lawsuits against D.C., people can limit their lead exposure for as little as $20 by purchasing a lead filter that goes on a kitchen sink (Augenstein, 2016).
In 2001 an examination of studies conducted by Kaufman about lead in drinking water negatively affecting IQ. This gave many reasons why some of the studies could be inaccurate (Kaufman, 2001). Some reasons were poor parenting, the inability to control for variables that the studies were not measuring, and the way IQ was measured was not consistent (Kaufman, 2001). A study conducted by Clark et al., in 2015, found that the zinc coating on lead pipes should be taken into consideration when measuring the risk of lead (p. 720).
One study found that 42,000 D.C. children who were in the womb or younger than age 2 were exposed to high levels of lead (Shaver & Hedgpeth, 2016). This means that they are more at risk for health and behavioral problems compared to their healthy children (Shaver & Hedgpeth, 2016).
The Safe Drinking Water Amendments of 1986 required all homes built after 1986 to have “lead-free” plumbing (Brown et al., 2011, p. 68). This regulation still allowed for plumbing to have 8% lead (Brown et al., 2011, p. 68). The Lead and Copper Rule was established in 1991, and is enforced by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (Brown et al., 2011, p. 67). Since 1991, this law has been revised many times (EPA, 2017). This regulation requires the monitoring of tap water (EPA, 2017). If the amount of lead in water is more than 15 parts per billion, or copper levels are more than 1.3 parts per million in more than 10% of tap water samples, the system has to take action to combat and control the corrosion (EPA, 2017). If this is the case, the system also has to inform the public of ways they can remain healthy, and may have to replace service lines under their control (EPA, 2017).
In 2004, D.C. added orthophosphate to the chloramine to combat the corrosion of pipes, and began replacing service lines made of lead (Brown et al., 2011, p. 68). In 2011 Congress reduced the maximum lead content in water from 8% to 0.25% (EPA, 2017). This was made possible by the Reduction in Lead Drinking Water Act (RLDWA) (EPA, 2017).
As of 2016, there were still five lawsuits against Washington D.C. (Shaver & Hedgpeth, 2016).
Lead contaminated water is still a concern in today’s society (Clark, Masters, & Edwards, 2015, p. 713). With public health goals becoming stricter, and more attention being given to the issue, people are becoming more aware of the dangers of lead (Clark et al., 2015, p. 713).
In 2001 an examination of studies conducted by Kaufman about lead in drinking water negatively affecting IQ. This gave many reasons why some of the studies could be inaccurate (Kaufman, 2001). Some reasons were poor parenting, the inability to control for variables that the studies were not measuring, and the way IQ was measured was not consistent (Kaufman, 2001). A study conducted by Clark et al., in 2015, found that the zinc coating on lead pipes should be taken into consideration when measuring the risk of lead (p. 720).
One study found that 42,000 D.C. children who were in the womb or younger than age 2 were exposed to high levels of lead (Shaver & Hedgpeth, 2016). This means that they are more at risk for health and behavioral problems compared to their healthy children (Shaver & Hedgpeth, 2016).
This is a global issue (Edwards, 2009, p. 1622). Studies around the world in countries such as France, Scotland, and Germany found a correlation between water lead levels and elevated blood lead levels in adults (Edwards, 2009, p. 1622).
As of 2016, there were still five lawsuits against Washington D.C. (Shaver & Hedgpeth, 2016).
The lead industry made no effort to control the issue (Rabin, 2008, p. 1590). The industry actually promoted lead use after the hazards were identified (Rabin, 2008, p. 1590).
Lead contaminated water is still a concern in today’s society (Clark, Masters, & Edwards, 2015, p. 713). With public health goals becoming stricter, and more attention being given to the issue, people are becoming more aware of the dangers of lead (Clark et al., 2015, p. 713).
To replace the leaded service lines in Washington, D.C., the cost would be approximately $300 million (Rabin, 2008, p. 1590).
This is a global issue (Edwards, 2009, p. 1622). Studies around the world in countries such as France, Scotland, and Germany found a correlation between water lead levels and elevated blood lead levels in adults (Edwards, 2009, p. 1622).
Andrei, M. (2016, October 20). Failure to learn from D.C. water crisis led to Flint, Edwards tells UB audience. UBNow. Retrieved from https://www.buffalo.edu/ubnow/stories/2016/10/edwards renew-lecture.html
Augenstein, N. (2016, April 6). After D.C.’s crisis: How to make sure your drinking water is safe. Retrieved from https://wtop.com/dc/2016/04/d-c-s-crisis-make-sure-drinking-water-safe/
Brown, M. J., Raymond, J., Homa, D., Kennedy, C., & Sinks, T. (2011). Association between children’s blood lead levels, lead service lines, and water disinfection, Washington, DC, 1998–2006. Environmental Research, 111(1), 67-74. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2010.10.003
Clark, B. N., Masters, S. V., & Edwards, M. A. (2015). Lead release to drinking water from galvanized steel pipe coatings. Environmental Engineering Science, 32(8), 713-721. doi:10.1089/ees.2015.0073
Edwards, M., Triantafyllidou, S., & Best, D. (2009). Elevated blood lead in young children due to lead-contaminated drinking water: Washington, DC, 2001−2004. Environmental Science & Technology, 43(5), 1618-1623. doi:10.1021/es802789w
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2017). Use of lead free pipes, fittings, fixtures, solder and flux for drinking water. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/dwstandardsregulations/use-lead-free-pipes-fittings-fixtures-solder-and-flux-drinking-water
Fogle, J. M. (2018, March 28). Washington, D.C. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved April 5, 2018, from https://www.britannica.com/place/Washington-DC/History
Lyons, S. (September 22, 2016). Failure to learn lessons a decade earlier led to Flint water crisis, scientist says. Environmental Health. Retrieved from https://hub.jhu.edu/2016/09/22/marc-edwards-flint-dc-water-crisis/
Jakubowski, M. (2011). Low-level environmental lead exposure and intellectual impairment in children — the current concepts of risk assessment. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health, 24(1), 1-7. doi:10.2478/s13382-011-0009-z
Kaufman, A. S. (2001). Do low levels of lead produce IQ loss in children? A careful examination of the literature. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 16(4), 303-341. doi:10.1093/arclin/16.4.303
Rabin, R. (2008). The lead industry and lead water pipes “A modest campaign.” American Journal of Public Health, 98(9), 1584-1592. doi:10.2105/ajph.2007.113555
Shaver, K. & Hedgpeth, D. (2016). D.C.’s decade-old problem of lead in water gets new attention during Flint crisis. The Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/dcs-decade-old-problem-of-lead-in-water-gets-new-attention-during-flint-crisis/2016/03/17/79f8d476-ec64-11e5-b0fd-073d5930a7b7_story.html?utm_term=.84f17bd344d9
The lead industry made no effort to control the issue (Rabin, 2008, p. 1590). The industry actually promoted lead use after the hazards were identified (Rabin, 2008, p. 1590).
To replace the leaded service lines in Washington, D.C., the cost would be approximately $300 million (Rabin, 2008, p. 1590).